Domestic Violence

The infliction of physical, sexual, and/or emotional injury on a member or members of one’s family or household. Rural areas, while noted for somewhat lower crime rates in general, enjoy little, if any, respite from crimes of domestic violence. Characteristics of some rural communities, which may include geographical isolation, social isolation, greater conformity to conventional values and norms, and a lack of anonymity, are conditions that can exacerbate the problem. Victims of domestic violence who live in rural areas are faced with additional barriers. These range from a lower level of support services, including mental health counseling, shelters and self-help groups, to the absence of a social infrastructure, including transportation, housing, child care and employment opportunities. This article examines current domestic violence rates, recent changes in state and federal domestic violence laws, social services available to victims of domestic violence, and correlates of domestic violence.

Domestic Violence Rates

Estimates of child abuse range from a low of 500,000 to a high of 6.9 million cases per year in the U.S. Approximately 2.5 million cases of child abuse are reported to authorities each year, and about half are substantiated (accepted for further investigation and intervention). Almost all abuse is inflicted by family members; less than 5 percent of reported incidents are committed by someone outside the home. More than half of the victims are under the age of one and 90 percent are under five years of age. Homicide is the fourth highest cause of death among children, with over 1,200 children dying from abuse-related causes each year. Age, family income and ethnicity are risk factors for child abuse. There is, however, no correlation between geographic location and incidence of child abuse. Children living in rural areas are as likely to be victims of child abuse as are their urban and suburban counterparts.

Estimates of intimate violence range from 572,000 to four million cases per year. On the average, women experience over 10 times as many incidents of violence by an intimate than do men. The problem is so widespread that a woman has a higher probability of being assaulted by a partner in her own home than a law enforcement officer has of being attacked on the job. Additionally, intimate violence is rarely an isolated incident, but rather, cyclical in nature with each subsequent attack becoming more severe. Each year, 2,000 to 4,000 women are killed by their husbands or lovers, with over half of the homicides of female spouses and partners committed by men after separation of the victim and perpetrator. Rates of violence committed by intimates are similar for women living in central cities, suburban areas, and rural locations. Residence in rural areas does not decrease the likelihood of experiencing intimate violence.

A lack of definitive data makes it difficult to measure accurately the incidence of elder abuse. According to a report by the U.S. House Select Committee on Aging, at least 1.5 million elderly Americans are victims of abuse. It is estimated that fewer than 20 percent of cases are reported; underreporting is due to the isolation of the elderly from mainstream society and their fear that reporting the abuse will result in separation from family, and possibly, in nursing home placement. Women, especially those over age 75 who are physically and/or financially dependent on others for meeting their daily needs, are most susceptible to abuse. Initial assumptions about elder abuse focused almost exclusively on adult children and caregivers as the primary perpetrators. Recent studies, however, indicate that of the approximately one million females age 65 and older who are victims of violence, roughly half are abused by a husband or male partner. There is no indication that elder abuse is less prevalent in rural areas than in urban or suburban areas.

Domestic Violence Laws

Recent changes in state laws have made domestic violence an issue that must be addressed in both urban and rural communities. Congress passed the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act in 1974, which created requirements that states had to implement in order to secure federal funding for child maltreatment programs. Requirements included the passage of child abuse and neglect laws, procedures for reporting abuse, procedures for investigations, and training programs for protective services personnel. This legislation was amended in 1978, 1984 and 1988. As a result, each state has a child abuse and neglect reporting law requiring professionals such as medical personnel, school personnel, child care workers, social workers and psychologists to report suspected cases of child abuse or neglect. Additionally, states either require or suggest that suspected cases of child abuse be reported by the general public. State laws require law enforcement officials to make arrests in spouse abuse cases if there is probable cause to conclude that an assault has taken place.

The Older Americans Act of 1987 required state agencies on aging to assess the need for elder abuse prevention programs. Adult protective services workers in each state are mandated to conduct home investigations in suspected cases of elder abuse.

It cannot be assumed that laws are enforced and programs are implemented with the same degree of uniformity. Funding for these programs has always been limited; the budget cuts of the 1980s and 1990s meant that all programs are underfunded, but rural areas suffer from additional problems. The geographic isolation of some rural communities that fosters the myth that they are free from social problems including domestic violence poses serious issues for individuals in need of services. If domestic violence is not viewed as a significant problem, then training sessions for law enforcement officers and other professionals may be attended but will have little impact on their target populations.

Rural law enforcement personnel must address situations that range from handling traffic offenses to removing farm animals from roads or providing escorts for funerals; there is little incentive to specialize in domestic violence investigations. From a practical standpoint, many law enforcement officials who investigate domestic violence incidents must travel long distances and without the reassurance that a backup officer is nearby, despite the fact that domestic violence calls are among the most lethal to law enforcement officials. Some rural judges who issue emergency protective orders are available only on a part-time basis and must cover large geographic areas. A victim, already apprehensive about requesting a protective order, may find the prospect of having to wait for the judge to issue the order too difficult to face.

Social Services

Low population density impacts social service delivery in rural areas. Many rural residents must travel to county seats or urban areas to receive services. Distance, combined with the attitude that incidents of domestic violence are really family problems that should remain in the family, makes it even more difficult to request or receive services. In child abuse cases, where investigation is mandatory, negative attitudes toward protective service agencies, which sometimes are viewed as arms of an intrusive government, may discourage the reporting of suspected abuse. When abuse is reported, service workers may need to travel several hours to investigate a case. If the child is thought to be in imminent danger, the worker must contact law enforcement officials to remove the child. This action may necessitate another lengthy trip. Some rural communities can provide little beyond investigative services. Resources such as community mental health centers, support groups, shelters, and education and prevention groups are unavailable. Even if these resources are available, distance and a lack of transportation may make them inaccessible.

The lack of anonymity that characterizes many rural communities impacts service delivery by law enforcement officials, court officials or social service personnel. It is not unusual for clients and perpetrators to be known by service providers. In some instances, knowing that the police dispatcher who is called, the law enforcement official who responds to the call, the protective services worker who investigates a case, or the local mental health counselor is a neighbor, a member of that client’s Sunday school class or civic organization, or perhaps even a relative, is a sufficient deterrent to seeking help. Protecting the family name or saving the perpetrator from embarrassment may take precedence over the victim’s safety. Although lack of anonymity affects all rural victims, it can be particularly difficult for individuals whose families constitute the influential forces in the community. Rural communities desperately need professionals such as physicians, lawyers, school personnel and police officers, and these communities may make every effort to keep these individuals even if it means turning a blind eye to family problems such as domestic violence. Additionally, services such as spouse abuse shelters and safe houses, or chapters of self-help organizations such as Parents Anonymous, find it almost impossible to remain anonymous.

Correlates of Domestic Violence

Economic conditions affect the need for services and the availability of these services. Although domestic violence cuts across all social classes, research indicates a relationship between economic instability and a number of social problems including domestic violence. Whether in the form of plant closings, military base closings or farm failures, economic crisis can be measured in increased rates of health problems, alcoholism, divorce, depression, anxiety, suicide and abuse. Whereas some urban areas have been hit hard by a reduction in defense spending and manufacturing jobs, rural areas that depend on only one or a few facilities for the bulk of their jobs can be devastated by a plant or military base closing. This loss is compounded by a decrease in payroll taxes, property taxes, and in some instances, charitable contributions.

The farm crisis of the 1980s also had an impact on rural family life. The number of reported suicides in Iowa, for example, climbed to rates equal to that of the Depression; many other suicides were attributed to farm-related and hunting accidents. Whereas several of these suicides (some of which included family massacres) made the national newspapers, other violent incidents gained little attention but were indicative of the pressures felt by families. Statistics collected by the Iowa State Department of Human Services illustrate the impact of the farm crisis: “Despite a shrinking population, the number of cases of child abuse reported in Iowa went from nearly 15,000 to over 25,000 in 1987….reported cases of spouse abuse went from 1,620 in 1985 up to more than 4,500 in 1987” (Davidson, 1990). The same economic conditions that precipitated personal and family crises drastically cut funding to agencies whose job was to help individuals handle these crisis situations. Funding for community mental health agencies, for example, was cut by almost onethird from 1980 to 1988.

Despite the fact that domestic violence is an ageold problem, services directed at the various types of domestic violence are relatively new. Laws protecting victims were not passed until the 1970s and early services were poorly funded and understaffed. Funding was decreased during the 1980s when efforts to balance the federal budget took precedence over social problems such as domestic violence. Services that did develop were established, and continue to be located for the most part, in urban areas. Limited program budgets, minimal outreach efforts and a lack of transportation make all but mandated services such as protective services investigations nearly inaccessible for most rural residents. Since it is highly unlikely that funding for domestic violence programs will increase in the near future, rural residents will receive increased services only if programs place greater emphasis on service delivery methods that emphasize outreach.

Twenty-four-hour hotlines with toll-free numbers can provide information and crisis counseling to all residents of a state. State coalitions that provide modest grants to fund local education efforts and support groups can make a small amount of money go a long way. Public service announcements can provide access to information about domestic violence for rural and urban residents alike. It is unlikely that domestic violence will ever be eliminated, but its effects can be diminished without pitting the needs of rural Americans against their urban counterparts.

— Rosemarie Bogal-Allbritten

See also

• Crime; Family; Injuries; Marriage; Policy, Family; Rural Women

References

• Bachman, Ronet. Violence Against Women: A National Crime Victimization Survey Report. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1994.
• Bogal-Allbritten, Rosemarie and Lillian Rogers Daughaday. “Spouse Abuse Program Services: A Rural-Urban Comparison.” Human Services in the Rural Environment 14 (Fall 1990): 6-10.
• Davidson, Osha Gray. Broken Heartland. New York, NY: The Free Press, 1990.
• Few, April L. “The Voices of Black and White Rural Battered Women in Domestic Violence Shelters.” Family Relations 54, no. 4 (October 2005): 488-500.
• Feyen, Carol K. “Isolated Acts: Domestic Violence in a Rural Community.” Pp. 101-127 in The Hidden America: Social Problems in Rural America for the Twenty- first Century. Edited by Robert M. Moore III. Selinsgrove, PA: Susquehanna University Press, 2001.
• Gadomski, Anne M., Maria Tripp, Debra A. Wolff, Carol Lewis, and Paul Jenkins. “Impact of a Rural Domestic Violence Prevention Campaign.” Journal of Rural Health 17, no 3 (Summer 2001): 266-277.
• Ginsburg, Leon H. Social Work in Rural Communities. 2nd edition. Alexandria, VA: Council on Social Work Education, 1993.
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• Krishnan, S.P., J.C. Hilbert, and D. VanLeeuwen. “Domestic Violence and Help-Seeking Behaviors among Rural Women: Results from a Shelter-Based Study.” Family Community Health 24, no. 1 (April 2001): 28-38.
• Shepherd, Judy. “Where Do You Go When It’s 40 Below? Domestic Violence among Rural Alaska Native Women.” Affilia 16, no. 4 (2001): 488-510.
• Websdale, Neil. Rural Woman Battering and the Justice System: An Ethnography. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998.
• Wiehe, Vernon R. Working with Child Abuse and Neglect. Itasca, IL: F.E. Peacock, Publishers, 1992.