Computer-aided design, engineering, and manufacturing (CAD, CAE, and CAM, respectively) are three stages in the industrial process that utilize computers to aid in the PRODUCTION of goods and SERVICES. CAD includes designing and drafting a product for manufacture. Many Americans have seen CAD systems in architects’ offices, where architects take customers’ ideas and requirements and create a computer model of the home or office. In a manufacturing environment, a client company or marketing division within the company will develop ideas for products which are then designed using a CAD system. CAE is the use of computer systems to define and refine the tooling needed to produce a product. As Gary S. Vasilach reports, “If you can design for manufacturability, you are well on your way to minimizing variability and achieving zero defects... Run the part through more electronic versions. Do more testing. Get it right. Pack more upfront engineering into the same time frame.” CAM, also called computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM), includes manufacturing engineering tasks such as programming numerically controlled machine tools and generating process plans outlining the steps needed to produce a part. CAM includes links to factory automation equipment and production management as well. CAM systems often include quality-control systems, materials and components testing, and monitoring of final products to ensure that they are within tolerance specifications. CAD, CAE, and CAM flourished in the 1980s and early 1990s as computers became more powerful and able to handle more complex quantitative relationships. As Vasilash states, manufacturers adopted computer-controlled machine tools to improve efficiency and precision. Their problem “was being able to feed those machines with data in a timely manner. At the same time, people were looking at the ways and means to automate designs, to create drawings faster. Thus, there were two different systems.” Since then CAD/CAM systems including hardware, software, networks, and factory floor equipment have been integrated into complete systems. Many computer companies developed specialized systems for each industry. One company, Policy Management Systems, Inc., developed software systems just for INSURANCE companies, allowing parent companies and agents throughout their system to write policies, assess risks, and manage operations. In some industries, like architecture, standardized, off-theshelf CAD/CAM systems are available, while in many industries customized systems are designed. CAD/CAM systems are becoming increasing sophisticated and, with INTERNET communications, allow collaboration among design and manufacturing teams organized globally.